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Abstract Ground-based high-resolution cross-correlation spectroscopy (HRCCS;R ≳ 15,000) is a powerful complement to space-based studies of exoplanet atmospheres. By resolving individual spectral lines, HRCCS can precisely measure chemical abundance ratios, directly constrain atmospheric dynamics, and robustly probe multidimensional physics. But the subtleties of HRCCS data sets—e.g., the lack of exoplanetary spectra visible by eye and the statistically complex process of telluric removal—can make interpreting them difficult. In this work, we seek to clarify the uncertainty budget of HRCCS with a forward-modeling approach. We present an HRCCS observation simulator,scope,⁵⁵https://github.com/arjunsavel/scopethat incorporates spectral contributions from the exoplanet, star, tellurics, and instrument. This tool allows us to control the underlying data set, enabling controlled experimentation with complex HRCCS methods. Simulating a fiducial hot Jupiter data set (WASP-77Ab emission with IGRINS), we first confirm via multiple tests that the commonly used principal component analysis does not bias the planetary signal when few components are used. Furthermore, we demonstrate that mildly varying tellurics and moderate wavelength solution errors induce only mild decreases in HRCCS detection significance. However, limiting-case, strongly varying tellurics can bias the retrieved velocities and gas abundances. Additionally, in the low signal-to-noise ratio limit, constraints on gas abundances become highly non-Gaussian. Our investigation of the uncertainties and potential biases inherent in HRCCS data analysis enables greater confidence in scientific results from this maturing method. 

Abstract High-resolution spectroscopy of exoplanet atmospheres provides insights into their composition and dynamics from the resolved line shape and depth of thousands of spectral lines. WASP-127 b is an extremely inflated sub-Saturn (R_p= 1.311R_Jup,M_p= 0.16M_Jup) with previously reported detections of H₂O and CO₂. However, the seeming absence of the primary carbon reservoir expected at WASP-127 b temperatures (T_eq∼1400 K) from chemical equilibrium, CO, posed a mystery. In this manuscript, we present the analysis of high-resolution observations of WASP-127 b with the Immersion Grating Infrared Spectrometer on Gemini South. We confirm the presence of H₂O (8.67σ) and report the detection of CO (4.34σ). Additionally, we conduct a suite of Bayesian retrieval analyses covering a hierarchy of model complexity and self-consistency. When freely fitting for the molecular gas volume mixing ratios, we obtain super-solar metal enrichment for H₂O abundance of log₁₀X ${}_{{\mathrm{H}}_2\mathrm{O}}$= −1.23 ${}_{-0.49}^{+0.29}$and a lower limit on the CO abundance of log₁₀X_CO≥–2.20 at 2σconfidence. We also report tentative evidence of photochemistry in WASP-127 b based upon the indicative depletion of H₂S. This is also supported by the data preferring models with photochemistry over free-chemistry and thermochemistry. The overall analysis implies a super-solar (∼39× Solar; [M/H] = ${1.59}_{-0.30}^{+0.30}$) metallicity for the atmosphere of WASP-127 b and an upper limit on its atmospheric C/O ratio as < 0.68. 

Abstract A primary goal of exoplanet science is to measure the atmospheric composition of gas giants in order to infer their formation and migration histories. Common diagnostics for planet formation are the atmospheric metallicity ([M/H]) and the carbon-to-oxygen (C/O) ratio as measured through transit or emission spectroscopy. The C/O ratio in particular can be used to approximately place a planet’s initial formation radius from the stellar host, but a given C/O ratio may not be unique to formation location. This degeneracy can be broken by combining measurements of both the C/O ratio and the atmospheric refractory-to-volatile ratio. We report the measurement of both quantities for the atmosphere of the canonical ultrahot Jupiter WASP-121 b using the high-resolution (R= 45,000) IGRINS instrument on Gemini South. Probing the planet’s direct thermal emission in both pre- and post-secondary eclipse orbital phases, we infer that WASP-121 b has a significantly superstellar C/O ratio of ${0.70}_{-0.10}^{+0.07}$and a moderately superstellar refractory-to-volatile ratio at ${3.83}_{-1.67}^{+3.62}\times$stellar. This combination is most consistent with formation between the soot line and H₂O snow line, but we cannot rule out formation between the H₂O and CO snow lines or beyond the CO snow line. We also measure velocity offsets between H₂O, CO, and OH, potentially an effect of chemical inhomogeneity on the planet dayside. This study highlights the ability to measure both C/O and refractory-to-volatile ratios via high-resolution spectroscopy in the near-IRHandKbands. 

Abstract Ultra-hot Jupiters (UHJs) are among the best targets for atmospheric characterization at high spectral resolution. Resolving their transmission spectra as a function of orbital phase offers a unique window into the 3D nature of these objects. In this work, we present three transits of the UHJ WASP-121b observed with Gemini-S/IGRINS. For the first time, we measure the phase-dependent absorption signals of CO and H₂O in the atmosphere of an exoplanet, and we find that they are different. While the blueshift of CO increases during the transit, the absorption lines of H₂O become less blueshifted with phase, and even show a redshift in the second half of the transit. These measurements reveal the distinct spatial distributions of both molecules across the atmospheres of UHJs. Also, we find that the H₂O signal is absent in the first quarter of the transit, potentially hinting at cloud formation on the evening terminator of WASP-121b. To further interpret the absorption trails of CO and H₂O, as well as the Doppler shifts of Fe previously measured with VLT/ESPRESSO, we compare the data to simulated transits of WASP-121b. To this end, we post-process the outputs of the global circulation models with a 3D Monte-Carlo radiative transfer code. Our analysis shows that the atmosphere of WASP-121b is subject to atmospheric drag, as previously suggested by small hotspot offsets inferred from phase-curve observations. Our study highlights the importance of phase-resolved spectroscopy in unravelling the complex atmospheric structure of UHJs and sets the stage for further investigations into their chemistry and dynamics. 

Abstract Measurements of the carbon-to-oxygen (C/O) ratios of exoplanet atmospheres can reveal details about their formation and evolution. Recently, high-resolution cross-correlation analysis has emerged as a method of precisely constraining the C/O ratios of hot Jupiter atmospheres. We present two transits of the ultrahot Jupiter WASP-76b observed between 1.4 and 2.4μm with the high-resolution Immersion GRating INfrared Spectrometer on the Gemini-S telescope. We detected the presence of H₂O, CO, and OH at signal-to-noise ratios of 6.93, 6.47, and 3.90, respectively. We performed two retrievals on this data set. A free retrieval for abundances of these three species retrieved a volatile metallicity of $\left(\frac{\mathrm{C}+\mathrm{O}}{\mathrm{H}}\right)=-{0.70}_{-0.93}^{+1.27}$, consistent with the stellar value, and a supersolar carbon-to-oxygen ratio of C/O $={0.80}_{-0.11}^{+0.07}$. We also ran a chemically self-consistent grid retrieval, which agreed with the free retrieval within 1σbut favored a slightly more substellar metallicity and solar C/O ratio ( $\left(\frac{\mathrm{C}+\mathrm{O}}{\mathrm{H}}\right)=-{0.74}_{-0.17}^{+0.23}$and C/O $={0.59}_{-0.14}^{+0.13}$). A variety of formation pathways may explain the composition of WASP-76b. Additionally, we found systemic (V_sys) and Keplerian (K_p) velocity offsets which were broadly consistent with expectations from 3D general circulation models of WASP-76b, with the exception of a redshiftedV_sysfor H₂O. Future observations to measure the phase-dependent velocity offsets and limb differences at high resolution on WASP-76b will be necessary to understand the H₂O velocity shift. Finally, we find that the population of exoplanets with precisely constrained C/O ratios generally trends toward super-solar C/O ratios. More results from high-resolution observations or JWST will serve to further elucidate any population-level trends. 

Abstract Ground-based high-resolution and space-based low-resolution spectroscopy are the two main avenues through which transiting exoplanet atmospheres are studied. Both methods provide unique strengths and shortcomings, and combining the two can be a powerful probe into an exoplanet’s atmosphere. Within a joint atmospheric retrieval framework, we combined JWST NIRSpec/G395H secondary eclipse spectra and Gemini South/IGRINS pre- and post-eclipse thermal emission observations of the hot Jupiter WASP-77A b. Our inferences from the IGRINS and NIRSpec data sets are consistent with each other, and combining the two allows us to measure the gas abundances of H₂O and CO, as well as the vertical thermal structure, with higher precision than either data set provided individually. We confirm WASP-77A b’s subsolar metallicity ([(C+O)/H] = −0.61 ${}_{-0.09}^{+0.10})$and solar C/O ratio (C/O = 0.57 ${}_{-0.06}^{+0.06})$. The two types of data are complementary, and our abundance inferences are mostly driven by the IGRINS data, while inference of the thermal structure is driven by the NIRSpec data. Our ability to draw inferences from the post-eclipse IGRINS data is highly sensitive to the number of singular values removed in the detrending process, potentially due to high and variable humidity. We also search for signatures for atmospheric dynamics in the IGRINS data and find that propagated ephemeris error can manifest as either an orbital eccentricity or a strong equatorial jet. Neither are detected when using more up-to-date ephemerides. However, we find moderate evidence of thermal inhomogeneity and measure a cooler nightside that presents itself in the later phases after secondary eclipse. 

Abstract Brown dwarf spectra offer vital testbeds for our understanding of the chemical and physical processes that sculpt substellar atmospheres. Recently, atmospheric retrieval approaches have been successfully applied to low-resolution (R∼ 100) spectra of L, T, and Y dwarfs, yielding constraints on the chemical abundances and temperature structures of these atmospheres. Medium-resolution (R∼ 10³) spectra of brown dwarfs offer additional insight, as molecular features are more easily disentangled and the thermal structure of the upper atmosphere is better probed. We present results from a GPU-based retrieval analysis of a high signal-to-noise, medium-resolution (R∼ 6000) FIRE spectrum from 0.85 to 2.5μm of the T9 dwarf UGPS J072227.51–054031.2. At 60× higher spectral resolution than previous brown dwarf retrievals, a number of novel challenges arise. We examine the effect of different opacity sources, in particular for CH₄. Furthermore, we find that flaws in the data like errors from order stitching can bias our constraints. We compare these retrieval results to those for anR∼ 100 spectrum of the same object, revealing how constraints on atmospheric abundances and temperatures improve by an order of magnitude or more with increased spectral resolution. In particular, we can constrain the abundance of H₂S, which is undetectable at lower spectral resolution. While these medium-resolution retrievals offer the potential of precise, stellar-like constraints on atmospheric abundances (∼0.02 dex), our retrieved radius is unphysically small ( $R={0.50}_{-0.01}^{+0.01}$R_Jup), indicating shortcomings with our modeling framework. This work is an initial investigation into brown dwarf retrievals at medium spectral resolution, offering guidance for future ground-based studies and JWST observations. 

Abstract Constraining L dwarf properties from their spectra is challenging. Near-infrared (NIR) spectra probe a limited range of pressures, while many species condense within their photospheres. Condensation creates two complexities: gas-phase species “rain out” (decreasing in abundances by many orders of magnitude) and clouds form. We designed tests using synthetic data to determine the best approach for retrieving L dwarf spectra, isolating the challenges in the absence of cloud opacity. We conducted atmospheric retrievals on synthetic cloud-free L dwarf spectra derived from the Sonora Bobcat models at SpeX resolution using a variety of thermal and chemical abundance profile parameterizations. For objects hotter than L5 (T_eff∼ 1700 K), the limited pressure layers probed in the NIR are mostly convective; parameterized pressure–temperature (PT) profiles bias results and free, unsmoothed profiles should be used. Only when many layers both above and below the radiative-convective boundary are probed can parameterized profiles provide accurate results. Furthermore, a nonuniform abundance profile for FeH is needed to accurately retrieve bulk properties of early-to-mid L dwarfs. Nonuniform prescriptions for other gases in NIR retrievals may also be warranted near the L/T transition (CH₄) and early Y dwarfs (Na and K). We demonstrate the utility of using realistic, self-consistent models to benchmark retrievals and suggest how they can be used in the future. 

Abstract About 70%–80% of stars in our solar and Galactic neighborhood are M dwarfs. They span a range of low masses and temperatures relative to solar-type stars, facilitating molecule formation throughout their atmospheres. Standard stellar atmosphere models primarily designed for FGK stars face challenges when characterizing broadband molecular features in spectra of cool stars. Here, we introduce SPHINX —a new 1D self-consistent radiative–convective thermochemical equilibrium chemistry model grid of atmospheres and spectra for M dwarfs in low resolution ( R ∼ 250). We incorporate the latest precomputed absorption cross sections with pressure broadening for key molecules dominant in late-K, early/main-sequence-M stars. We then validate our grid models by determining fundamental properties ( T eff , log g , [M/H], radius, and C/O) for 10 benchmark M+G binary stars with known host metallicities and 10 M dwarfs with interferometrically measured angular diameters. Incorporating the Gaussian process inference tool Starfish , we account for correlated and systematic noise in low-resolution (spectral stitching of SpeX, SNIFS, and STIS) observations and derive robust estimates of fundamental M-dwarf atmospheric parameters. Additionally, we assess the influence of photospheric heterogeneity on inferred [M/H] and find that it could explain some deviations from observations. We also probe whether the adopted convective mixing length parameter influences inferred radii, effective temperature, and [M/H] and again find that may explain discrepancies between interferometric observations and model-derived parameters for cooler M dwarfs. Mainly, we show the unique strength in leveraging broadband molecular absorption features occurring in low-resolution M dwarf spectra and demonstrate the ability to improve constraints on fundamental properties of exoplanet hosts and brown-dwarf companions. 

Abstract Close-in lava planets represent an extreme example of terrestrial worlds, but their high temperatures may allow us to probe a diversity of crustal compositions. The brightest and most well-studied of these objects is 55 Cancri e, a nearby super-Earth with a remarkably short 17 hr orbit. However, despite numerous studies, debate remains about the existence and composition of its atmosphere. We present upper limits on the atmospheric pressure of 55 Cnc e derived from high-resolution time-series spectra taken with Gemini-N/MAROON-X. Our results are consistent with current crustal evaporation models for this planet which predict a thin ∼100 mbar atmosphere. We conclude that, if a mineral atmosphere is present on 55 Cnc e, the atmospheric pressure is below 100 mbar.